Wednesday, January 27, 2016

ethnographic research


LOGICAL POSITIVISM


NATURALISTIC ENQUIRY


NEURO LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING


PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH



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PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH 
The disciplinary origin of phenomenology is philosophy. Phenomenology is the descriptive study of how individuals experience a phenomenon. It deals with the central question like: What are the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon by an individual or by many individuals?The researcher tries to gain access to individuals' life worldswhich is their world of experiences, it is where consciousness exists
Definitions 
Collins English Dictionary (1991:1168) defines it as follows: . the movement founded by Husserl that concentrates on the detailed description of conscious experience, without resources to explanation, metaphysical assumptions, and traditional philosophical questions. 2. the science of phenomena as opposed to the science of being. Thus, phenomenology is an attempt to describe lived experiences without making previous assumptions about the objective reality of those experiences (Holloway 2005:47). According to Jasper (1994:309), phenomenology considers that the true meaning of phenomena be explored through the experience of them as described by the individual. Phenomenology is as inductive, descriptive research method
Advantages of phenomenology 
In addition to the general advantages of qualitative research, phenomenology has the following advantages
o researching human experience. . It is a highly appropriate approach to research 
As a research method, it is a rigorous, critical, systematic investigation of phenomena
Indications for the use of phenomenology 
The purpose of phenomenological enquiry is to explicate the structure or essence of the lived experiences in the search for meaning that identifies the essence of the phenomena, and its accurate description through every day's lived experience. Qualitative phenomenology is employed for the purpose of
clarifying the nature of being human yexpanding awareness about a certain phenomenon vo fostering human responsibility in the construction of realities 
tightening the bond between experiences and the concepts and theories used to explain those experiences 
Most nursing researchers adopt the phenomenological approach because of the nursing profession's philosophical beliefs about people. Nursing also grounds its practice in a holistic belief system that cares for mind, body and spirit
Dimensions of phenomenology 
(six types of phenomenology: descriptive phenomenology; phenomenology of essence; constitutive phenomenology; reductive phenomenology; phenomenology of appearances; and hermeneutical phenomenology. Descriptive phenomenolog
Spiegelberg (1976:69) defines descriptive phenomenology as direct exploration, analysis, and description of particular phenomenon, as free as possible from unexamined presuppositions, aiming at maximum intuitive presentation 
(Streubert Speziale & Carpenter 2003:60). Descriptive phenomenology stimulates people's perception of lived experiences while emphasising the richness, breadth, and depth of those experiences (Streubert & Carpenter 1999:60) Descriptive phenomenology is a three-step process: (1) intuiting, (2) analysing and (3) describing Phenomenology of essence 
Phenomenology of essence involves probing through the data to search for common themes or essences and establishing patterns of relationships shared by particular phenomena. Probing for essences provides a sense of what is essential and what is accidental in the phenomenological description. Constitutive phenomenology 
Constitutive phenomenology involves studying phenomena as they became established or constituted in people's consciousness. According to Spiegelberg (1975:72), constitutive phenomenology means the process in which the phenomena take shape in people's consciousness as they advance from first impression to full picture of the structure (Streubert Speziale & Carpenter) Reductive phenomenology 
Reductive phenomenology occurs concurrently throughout a phenomenological investigation. The researcher continually deals with personal biases, assumptions and presuppositions, thus brackets or sets aside these beliefs to obtain the purest description of the phenomenon under investigation. Phenomenology of appearances 
Phenomenology of appearances involves paying attention to the ways the phenomena appears. Hermeneutical phenomenology (interpretive
Hermeneutical or interpretive phenomenology concentrates on interpreting the meaning in the phenomenon that is concealed, and thus not immediately 
revealed to direct investigation, analysis and description (Holloway 2005:128). This approach concentrates on the need to study human consciousness by focusing on the world that the study participants subjectively experience. This could indicate immediate probing during the interviews
Special strategies in phenomenolog
Descriptive phenomenology involves the following four strategies: intuiting; bracketing; analysing; and describing
Intuiting "Intuiting is a process of thinking through the data so that a true comprehensive or accurate interpretation of what is meant in a particular description is achieved(Streubert Speziale & Carpenter 2003:54). In intuiting, researchers become absorbed in the phenomenon, looking at it afresh, without layering it with what they have bracketed out. Concentration is very important here because the involvement is intense (Brink & Wood 1998:301). Intuiting results in a common understanding about the phenomenon under investigation (Streubert Speziale & Carpenter 2003:60). Bracketing 
1. Researcher will keep his assumptions, . Personal biases aside so as to obtain purest descripti 
Bracketing refers to the process of holding assumptions and presuppositions data in suspension to improve the rigour of the research (Holloway 2005:289). This means that researchers explore their own assumptions and preconceptions in order to set them aside or keep them in suspension, rather than conceal them, so that they do not interfere with the information given by the participants. The bracketing process is crucial throughout the research process, especially during data analysis. Bracketing requires the researcher to remain neutral with respect to belief or disbelief in the existence of the phenomenon (Streubert Speziale & Carpenter 2003:55)
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Analysing 
Data 
Identify essence -> Presentation 
Phenomenological analysing involves identifying the essence of the phenomenon under investigation, based on the data obtained and on how the data 
are presented. Describing 

Describing is the final step and the aim is to communicate and describe (in writing and verbally) distinct, critical elements of the phenomenon, thereby communicating to others what the researcher has found (Brink & Wood 1998:23). The researcher must avoid attempting to describe a phenomenon prematurely. Premature description is a common methodological error associated with this type of research (Streubert Speziale & Carpenter 2003:61)